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Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation.[33] Python is dynamically typed and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional programming. It is often described as a "batteries included" language due to its comprehensive standard library.[34][35] Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language and first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0.[36] Python 2.0 was released in 2000. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision not completely backward-compatible with earlier versions. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2.[37] Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages, and has gained widespread use in the machine learning community.[38][39][40][41] Python was invented in the late 1980s[42] by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL,[43] capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.[12] Its implementation began in December 1989.[44] Van Rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from his responsibilities as Python's "benevolent dictator for life" (BDFL), a title the Python community bestowed upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker[45] (he's since come out of retirement and is self-titled "BDFL-emeritus"). In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.[46][47] Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection, reference counting, and Unicode support.[48] Python 3.0, released on 3 December 2008, with many of its major features backported to Python 2.6.x[49] and 2.7.x. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates the translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.[50] Python 2.7's end-of-life was initially set for 2015, then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.[51][52] No further security patches or other improvements will be released for it.[53][54] Currently only 3.8 and later are supported (2023 security issues were fixed in e.g. 3.7.17, the final 3.7.x release[55]). While Python 2.7 and older is officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, PyPy, continues to support Python 2, i.e. "2.7.18+" (plus 3.9 and 3.10), with the plus meaning (at least some) "backported security updates".[56]
C (pronounced /ˈsiː/ – like the letter c)[6] is a general-purpose computer programming language. It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie, and remains very widely used and influential. By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of the targeted CPUs. It has found lasting use in operating systems, device drivers, and protocol stacks, but its use in application software has been decreasing.[7] C is commonly used on computer architectures that range from the largest supercomputers to the smallest microcontrollers and embedded systems. A successor to the programming language B, C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to construct utilities running on Unix. It was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system.[8] During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. It has become one of the most widely used programming languages,[9][10] with C compilers available for practically all modern computer architectures and operating systems. The book The C Programming Language, co-authored by the original language designer, served for many years as the de facto standard for the language.[11][1] C has been standardized since 1989 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). C is an imperative procedural language, supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, with a static type system. It was designed to be compiled to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. Since 2000, C has consistently ranked among the top two languages in the TIOBE index, a measure of the popularity of programming languages.[12]
C++ is the most used and most popular programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ is a high-level and object-oriented programming language. This language allows developers to write clean and efficient code for large applications and software development, game development, and operating system programming. It is an expansion of the C programming language to include Object Oriented Programming(OOPs) and is used to develop programs for computers. This C++ Tutorial will cover all the basic to advanced topics of C++ like C++ basics, C++ functions, C++ classes, OOPs and STL concepts.
What is C++?
C++ is a most popular cross-platform programming language which is used to create high-performance applications and software like OS, Games, E-commerce software, etc. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, as an extension of C language. C++ give a high level of control over system resources and memory.
Why Learn C++?
C++ is one of the most used and popular programming languages.
C++ is used in making operating systems, embedded systems, and Graphical User Interfaces.
It is an object-oriented programming language that implements all the OOPs concepts such as Abstraction, Encapsulation, and Inheritance, which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to be reused, lowering development costs and providing security.
It is portable and can be used to create applications that can be adapted to multiple platforms.
C++ is easy to learn so that you can choose it as your first programming language.
It makes programming easy for programmers to switch to C++ because its syntax is similar to C, Java, and C#.
C++ Tutorial – Table of Content
Java is a high-level, class-based, object-oriented programming language that is designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is a general-purpose programming language intended to let programmers write once, run anywhere (WORA),[16] meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need to recompile.[17] Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is similar to C and C++, but has fewer low-level facilities than either of them. The Java runtime provides dynamic capabilities (such as reflection and runtime code modification) that are typically not available in traditional compiled languages. Java gained popularity shortly after its release, and has been a very popular programming language since then.[18] Java was the third most popular programming language in 2022 according to GitHub.[19] Although still widely popular, there has been a gradual decline in use of Java in recent years with other languages using JVM gaining popularity.[20] Java was originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems. It was released in May 1995 as a core component of Sun's Java platform. The original and reference implementation Java compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were originally released by Sun under proprietary licenses. As of May 2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun had relicensed most of its Java technologies under the GPL-2.0-only license. Oracle offers its own HotSpot Java Virtual Machine, however the official reference implementation is the OpenJDK JVM which is free open-source software and used by most developers and is the default JVM for almost all Linux distributions. As of March 2024, Java 22 is the latest version. Java 8, 11, 17, and 21 are previous LTS versions still officially supported. History See also: Java (software platform) § History Duke, the Java mascot James Gosling, the creator of Java, in 2008 James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language project in June 1991.[21] Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it was too advanced for the digital cable television industry at the time.[22] The language was initially called Oak after an oak tree that stood outside Gosling's office. Later the project went by the name Green and was finally renamed Java, from Java coffee, a type of coffee from Indonesia.[23] Gosling designed Java with a C/C++-style syntax that system and application programmers would find familiar.[24] Sun Microsystems released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1996.[25] It promised write once, run anywhere (WORA) functionality, providing no-cost run-times on popular platforms. Fairly secure and featuring configurable security, it allowed network- and file-access restrictions. Major web browsers soon incorporated the ability to run Java applets within web pages, and Java quickly became popular. The Java 1.0 compiler was re-written in Java by Arthur van Hoff to comply strictly with the Java 1.0 language specification.[26] With the advent of Java 2 (released initially as J2SE 1.2 in December 1998 – 1999), new versions had multiple configurations built for different types of platforms. J2EE included technologies and APIs for enterprise applications typically run in server environments, while J2ME featured APIs optimized for mobile applications. The desktop version was renamed J2SE. In 2006, for marketing purposes, Sun renamed new J2 versions as Java EE, Java ME, and Java SE, respectively. In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ISO/IEC JTC 1 standards body and later the Ecma International to formalize Java, but it soon withdrew from the process.[27][28][29] Java remains a de facto standard, controlled through the Java Community Process.[30] At one time, Sun made most of its Java implementations available without charge, despite their proprietary software status. Sun generated revenue from Java through the selling of licenses for specialized products such as the Java Enterprise System. On November 13, 2006, Sun released much of its Java virtual machine (JVM) as free and open-source software (FOSS), under the terms of the GPL-2.0-only license. On May 8, 2007, Sun finished the process, making all of its JVM's core code available under free software/open-source distribution terms, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright.[31] Sun's vice-president Rich Green said that Sun's ideal role with regard to Java was as an evangelist.[32] Following Oracle Corporation's acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2009–10, Oracle has described itself as the steward of Java technology with a relentless commitment to fostering a community of participation and transparency.[33] This did not prevent Oracle from filing a lawsuit against Google shortly after that for using Java inside the Android SDK (see the Android section). On April 2, 2010, James Gosling resigned from Oracle.[34] In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java run-time environments based on JDK 9 will discontinue the browser plugin.[35]
C# (/ˌsiː ˈʃɑːrp/ see SHARP)[b] is a general-purpose high-level programming language supporting multiple paradigms. C# encompasses static typing,[16]: 4 strong typing, lexically scoped, imperative, declarative, functional, generic,[16]: 22 object-oriented (class-based), and component-oriented programming disciplines.[17] The C# programming language was designed by Anders Hejlsberg from Microsoft in 2000 and was later approved as an international standard by Ecma (ECMA-334) in 2002 and ISO/IEC (ISO/IEC 23270 and 20619[c]) in 2003. Microsoft introduced C# along with .NET Framework and Visual Studio, both of which were closed-source. At the time, Microsoft had no open-source products. Four years later, in 2004, a free and open-source project called Mono began, providing a cross-platform compiler and runtime environment for the C# programming language. A decade later, Microsoft released Visual Studio Code (code editor), Roslyn (compiler), and the unified .NET platform (software framework), all of which support C# and are free, open-source, and cross-platform. Mono also joined Microsoft but was not merged into .NET. As of November 2023, the most recent stable version of the language is C# 12.0, which was released in 2023 in .NET 8.0.[18][19] Design goals The Ecma standard lists these design goals for C#:[17] The language is intended to be a simple, modern, general-purpose, object-oriented programming language. The language, and implementations thereof, should provide support for software engineering principles such as strong type checking, array bounds checking,[20]: 58–59 detection of attempts to use uninitialized variables, and automatic garbage collection.[20]: 563 Software robustness, durability, and programmer productivity are important. The language is intended for use in developing software components suitable for deployment in distributed environments. Portability is very important for source code and programmers, especially those already familiar with C and C++. Support for internationalization[20]: 314 is very important. C# is intended to be suitable for writing applications for both hosted and embedded systems, ranging from the very large that use sophisticated operating systems, down to the very small having dedicated functions. Although C# applications are intended to be economical with regard to memory and processing power requirements, the language was not intended to compete directly on performance and size with C or assembly language.[21] History During the development of the .NET Framework, the class libraries were originally written using a managed code compiler system named Simple Managed C (SMC).[22][23] In January 1999, Anders Hejlsberg formed a team to build a new language at the time called Cool, which stood for "C-like Object Oriented Language".[24] Microsoft had considered keeping the name "Cool" as the final name of the language, but chose not to do so for trademark reasons. By the time the .NET project was publicly announced at the July 2000 Professional Developers Conference, the language had been renamed C#, and the class libraries and ASP.NET runtime had been ported to C#. Hejlsberg is C#'s principal designer and lead architect at Microsoft, and was previously involved with the design of Turbo Pascal, Embarcadero Delphi (formerly CodeGear Delphi, Inprise Delphi and Borland Delphi), and Visual J++. In interviews and technical papers, he has stated that flaws[25] in most major programming languages (e.g. C++, Java, Delphi, and Smalltalk) drove the fundamentals of the Common Language Runtime (CLR), which, in turn, drove the design of the C# language. James Gosling, who created the Java programming language in 1994, and Bill Joy, a co-founder of Sun Microsystems, the originator of Java, called C# an "imitation" of Java; Gosling further said that "[C# is] sort of Java with reliability, productivity and security deleted."[26][27] In July 2000, Hejlsberg said that C# is "not a Java clone" and is "much closer to C++" in its design.[28]
JavaScript (/ˈdʒɑːvəskrɪpt/), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language and core technology of the Web, alongside HTML and CSS. 99% of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior.[10] Web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine that executes the client code. These engines are also utilized in some servers and a variety of apps. The most popular runtime system for non-browser usage is Node.js. JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript standard.[11] It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions. It is multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles. It has application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions, standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM). The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs for I/O. Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name, syntax, and respective standard libraries, the two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design. History Creation at Netscape The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface, Mosaic, was released in 1993. Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the early World Wide Web.[12] The lead developers of Mosaic then founded the Netscape corporation, which released a more polished browser, Netscape Navigator, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used.[13] During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a programming language to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with Sun Microsystems to embed the Java language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the Scheme language.[6] The goal was a "language for the masses",[14] "to help nonprogrammers create dynamic, interactive Web sites".[15] Netscape management soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java and less like Scheme or other extant scripting languages.[5][6] Although the new language and its interpreter implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December.[6][1][16]
Ruby is an interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language. It was designed with an emphasis on programming productivity and simplicity. In Ruby, everything is an object, including primitive data types. It was developed in the mid-1990s by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto in Japan. Ruby is dynamically typed and uses garbage collection and just-in-time compilation. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including procedural, object-oriented, and functional programming. According to the creator, Ruby was influenced by Perl, Smalltalk, Eiffel, Ada, BASIC, Java, and Lisp.[10][3] History Main article: History of Ruby Early concept Matsumoto has said that Ruby was conceived in 1993. In a 1999 post to the ruby-talk mailing list, he describes some of his early ideas about the language:[11] I was talking with my colleague about the possibility of an object-oriented scripting language. I knew Perl (Perl4, not Perl5), but I didn't like it really, because it had the smell of a toy language (it still has). The object-oriented language seemed very promising. I knew Python then. But I didn't like it, because I didn't think it was a true object-oriented language – OO features appeared to be add-on to the language. As a language maniac and OO fan for 15 years, I really wanted a genuine object-oriented, easy-to-use scripting language. I looked for but couldn't find one. So I decided to make it. Matsumoto describes the design of Ruby as being like a simple Lisp language at its core, with an object system like that of Smalltalk, blocks inspired by higher-order functions, and practical utility like that of Perl.[12] He praised the language for its ingenuity and creativity for its solution for compiling intervals. The name "Ruby" originated during an online chat session between Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka on February 24, 1993, before any code had been written for the language.[13] Initially two names were proposed: "Coral" and "Ruby". Matsumoto chose the latter in a later e-mail to Ishitsuka.[14] Matsumoto later noted a factor in choosing the name "Ruby"–it was the birthstone of one of his colleagues.[15][16] Early releases The first public release of Ruby 0.95 was announced on Japanese domestic newsgroups on December 21, 1995.[17][18] Subsequently, three more versions of Ruby were released in two days.[13] The release coincided with the launch of the Japanese-language ruby-list mailing list, which was the first mailing list for the new language. Already present at this stage of development were many of the features familiar in later releases of Ruby, including object-oriented design, classes with inheritance, mixins, iterators, closures, exception handling and garbage collection.[19]
Kotlin (/ˈkɒtlɪn/)[2] is a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose high-level programming language with type inference. Kotlin is designed to interoperate fully with Java, and the JVM version of Kotlin's standard library depends on the Java Class Library, but type inference allows its syntax to be more concise. Kotlin mainly targets the JVM, but also compiles to JavaScript (e.g., for frontend web applications using React)[3] or native code via LLVM (e.g., for native iOS apps sharing business logic with Android apps).[4] Language development costs are borne by JetBrains, while the Kotlin Foundation protects the Kotlin trademark.[5] On 7 May 2019, Google announced that the Kotlin programming language was now its preferred language for Android app developers.[6] Since the release of Android Studio 3.0 in October 2017, Kotlin has been included as an alternative to the standard Java compiler. The Android Kotlin compiler produces Java 8 bytecode by default (which runs in any later JVM), but lets the programmer choose to target Java 9 up to 20, for optimization,[7] or allows for more features; has bidirectional record class interoperability support for JVM, introduced in Java 16, considered stable as of Kotlin 1.5. Kotlin has support for the web with Kotlin/JS, either through a classic interpreter-based backend which has been declared stable since version 1.3, or an intermediate representation-based backend which has been declared stable since version 1.8. Kotlin/Native (for e.g. Apple silicon support) is considered beta since version 1.3.[8][9] History A 2D picture of the Kotlin mascot A 3D picture of the Kotlin mascot Name The name is derived from Kotlin Island, a Russian island in the Gulf of Finland, near St. Petersburg. Andrey Breslav, Kotlin's former lead designer, mentioned that the team decided to name it after an island, just like the programming language Java was named after the Indonesian island of Java[10] (though the language's name is said to have been inspired by "java" the American slang term for coffee,[11] which itself is derived from the island name).[12] Development In July 2011, JetBrains unveiled Project Kotlin, a new language for the JVM, which had been under development for a year.[13] JetBrains lead Dmitry Jemerov said that most languages did not have the features they were looking for, with the exception of Scala. However, he cited the slow compilation time of Scala as a deficiency.[13] One of the stated goals of Kotlin is to compile as quickly as Java. In February 2012, JetBrains open sourced the project under the Apache 2 license.[14] JetBrains hoped that the new language would drive IntelliJ IDEA sales.[15] The first commit to the Kotlin Git repository was on November 8, 2010.[16] Kotlin 1.0 was released on February 15, 2016.[17] This is considered to be the first officially stable release and JetBrains has committed to long-term backwards compatibility starting with this version.
PHP is a general-purpose scripting language geared towards web development.[8] It was originally created by Danish-Canadian programmer Rasmus Lerdorf in 1993 and released in 1995.[9][10] The PHP reference implementation is now produced by the PHP Group.[11] PHP was originally an abbreviation of Personal Home Page,[12][13] but it now stands for the recursive initialism PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor.[14] PHP code is usually processed on a web server by a PHP interpreter implemented as a module, a daemon or a Common Gateway Interface (CGI) executable. On a web server, the result of the interpreted and executed PHP code—which may be any type of data, such as generated HTML or binary image data—would form the whole or part of an HTTP response. Various web template systems, web content management systems, and web frameworks exist that can be employed to orchestrate or facilitate the generation of that response. Additionally, PHP can be used for many programming tasks outside the web context, such as standalone graphical applications[15] and drone control.[16] PHP code can also be directly executed from the command line. The standard PHP interpreter, powered by the Zend Engine, is free software released under the PHP License. PHP has been widely ported and can be deployed on most web servers on a variety of operating systems and platforms.[17] The PHP language has evolved without a written formal specification or standard, with the original implementation acting as the de facto standard that other implementations aimed to follow. W3Techs reports that as of 23 March 2024 (the four months after the PHP 8.3 release), PHP is used by 76.4% of all websites whose programming language could be determined, and 57.2% thereof use PHP 7 which is outdated and known to be insecure.[failed verification][18] History Rasmus Lerdorf, creator of PHP; and Andi Gutmans and Zeev Suraski, creators of the Zend Engine Early history PHP development began in 1993[9] when Rasmus Lerdorf wrote several Common Gateway Interface (CGI) programs in C,[19][20] which he used to maintain his personal homepage. He extended them to work with web forms and to communicate with databases, and called this implementation "Personal Home Page/Forms Interpreter" or PHP/FI.
Structured Query Language (SQL) (pronounced S-Q-L; historically "sequel")[4][5] is a domain-specific language used to manage data, especially in a relational database management system (RDBMS). It is particularly useful in handling structured data, i.e., data incorporating relations among entities and variables. Introduced in the 1970s, SQL offered two main advantages over older read–write APIs such as ISAM or VSAM. Firstly, it introduced the concept of accessing many records with one single command. Secondly, it eliminates the need to specify how to reach a record, i.e., with or without an index. Originally based upon relational algebra and tuple relational calculus, SQL consists of many types of statements,[6] which may be informally classed as sublanguages, commonly: Data query Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Control Language (DCL), and Data Manipulation Language (DML).[7] The scope of SQL includes data query, data manipulation (insert, update, and delete), data definition (schema creation and modification), and data access control. Although SQL is essentially a declarative language (4GL), it also includes procedural elements. SQL was one of the first commercial languages to use Edgar F. Codd's relational model. The model was described in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks".[8] Despite not entirely adhering to the relational model as described by Codd, SQL became the most widely used database language.[9][10] SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986 and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987.[11] Since then, the standard has been revised multiple times to include a larger set of features and incorporate common extensions. Despite the existence of standards, virtually no implementations in existence adhere to it fully, and most SQL code requires at least some changes before being ported to different database systems. History SQL was initially developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce after learning about the relational model from Edgar F. Codd[12] in the early 1970s.[13] This version, initially called SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original quasirelational database management system, System R, which a group at IBM San Jose Research Laboratory had developed during the 1970s.[13] Chamberlin and Boyce's first attempt at a relational database language was SQUARE (Specifying Queries in A Relational Environment), but it was difficult to use due to subscript/superscript notation. After moving to the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1973, they began work on a sequel to SQUARE.[12] The original name SEQUEL, which is widely regarded as a pun on QUEL, the query language of Ingres,[14] was later changed to SQL (dropping the vowels) because "SEQUEL" was a trademark of the UK-based Hawker Siddeley Dynamics Engineering Limited company.[15] The label SQL later became the acronym for Structured Query Language.